Social Injustice’s of Women in India

Violations Against Women in India Women all over the world are affected by social injustice. In many countries rules and laws have been put in place to ensure the equal treatment of women. Although these laws and rules have not kept things perfect they have helped to maintain a balance between men and women. This work towards equality does not function the same in all countries. There are still places where women are beaten, raped, and murdered without so much as a second thought. Some of these places even have rules in place to prevent these practices, but they are frequently overlooked. India is one of these places. A place that is both progressive on paper and in some urban areas but are also far behind in practice and in rural communities. What progress has already been made to protect women in India and what still needs to be done to ensure the equal treatment of women in all areas of India? According to the International Violence Against Women Act on Amnesty International’s site, â€Å"Violence against women and girls represents a global health, economic development, and human rights problem. At least one out of every three women worldwide has been beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime, with rates of domestic violence reaching 70% in some countries. † This abuse of women and their rights is something more developed countries are taking very seriously. Over 7,000 women in India will be murdered by their family or their husband’s family because of arguments about dowries. â€Å"Violence against women is rooted in a global culture of discrimination which denies women equal rights with men and which legitimizes the appropriation of women's bodies for individual gratification or political ends. Every year, violence in the home and the community devastates the lives of millions of women. † (Amnesty). The study of why and how women are treated they way they have been is a fairly recent study. Purkayastha explains when this study arose, â€Å"The contemporary study of gender in India arose within a specific sociohistorical context: the establishment of a nation-state in 1947 after two centuries of British colonialism† (Purkayastha , 504). A long time ago in India men and women were prescribed equal status but as time progressed, through medieval times of great inequalities between men and women to the present days of equal rights. In an opening verse of the Apastamba Sutra from around 4 BCE, quoted and translated on Amnesty International, it is stated that, â€Å"the primary duty of women is enjoined to be service to one’s husband. † Originally in ancient India women were looked at as equals. They were free to choose their own husbands at a mature age and maintained equal status in most areas of life. Shortly after this period of equality the number of equalities that existed between men and women began to diminish. Invasions as well as Christianity were contributors to the decline of equal rights for women. As the medieval period came around in India conditions for women continued to get worse. Sati, when a woman throws herself on her husband’s funeral pyre, child marriages, and the ban of women remarrying became the norm for Indian women. Polygamy in the Hindu tradition became more mainstream, as well as the sexual exploitation of temple women. While all of these hardships for women existed there also existed a small counterforce of women who surpassed men in areas like religion, education and politics. Sikhism also provided women with an opportunity for more rights and greater equality. One of the main messages of the Sikhs being equality between men and women especially during worship, for example when singing, being active members of the community, marriage equality, Baptismal equality, and even the opportunity to lead armies. According to Amnesty International â€Å"Violence against women is rampant in all corners of the world. Such violence is a human rights violation that manifests itself in a number of ways, including: violence against women in custody, acid burning and dowry deaths, â€Å"honor† killings, domestic violence, female genital mutilation, human rights violations based on actual or perceived sexual identity, gender based asylum, and the problem of impunity† (Amnesty). These violations against women exist all over the world especially in less progressive areas, such as third world countries, one of these countries being India. Violations against women in prison go largely unnoticed because these are things that happen behind closed doors and are mostly invisible to the public. Things like rape, groping during body searches, shackling during childbirth, and sexual assault are all common practices that have existed within in prisons in India. Sexual favors and lack of physical and psychological care are also major issues in many female correctional facilities. Another previously common social injustice against women in India is acid burning and dowry deaths. Jejeebhoy explains how keeping women in the dark is a way of expelling control, â€Å"Evidence of the limited control that Indian women exercise over their own lives is increasingly documented. Recent studies underscore their limited control over material and other resources, their restricted access to knowledge and information, their constrained authority to make independent decisions, their enforced lack of physical mobility, and their inability to forge equitable power relationships within families (Basu 1992; Visaria 1996; Jejeebhoy 2000). The role of men as gatekeepers enforcing this status quo is implicitly recognized, and, particularly since the International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo in 1994, the need to involve men in working for greater gender equity has been widely expressed† (Jejeebhoy, 299). An interview with a traveler to India, who experienced some direct encounters of female injustice and its current practice, was conducted. Devin Anderson a senior at the University of Iowa experienced accounts of female inequality and degradation through members of his Knolls group when studying in India. Interviewer: When you were in India where did you travel? DEVIN: I backpacked mostly in the Himalayan Mountains and in nearby rural villages. INTERVIEWER: While you traveled in these villages did you witness or experience any inequalities between the women and men? DEVIN: In many of the villages I visited the men and the women both held specific roles, ones that were part of their society, part of their way of living. Most of the duties that these roles implied were based on gender. I had also witnessed some inequality between the two genders. Like one day we went to a restaurant type place in one of the larger rural villages we were visiting, and while we were there some of the women in my group went to go order some food. The men who were there to take orders blatantly ignored their requests and waited for one of the men in our group to order for them. Women were apparently not allowed to speak or order for themselves and the men there actually seemed a little offended that these women had even tried. INTERVIEWER: What were some of the duties the women had versus the men? DEVIN: Typical things that many people think of when it comes to older American practices. Things like the men would tend to the animals and slaughter them for the meals. Women were expected to look after the children, cook, and tend to the house. INTERVIEWER: Do you think major inequalities like these exist all over India? DEVIN: No, many women in India have jobs and lives all their own, especially in urban areas. Unfortunately in many rural areas many inequalities still exist. There are four main practices that can still be found in practice in rural areas even with the ban that exists on them. These four practices are sati, jauhar, purdah, and devadasis. Sati is a rather old practice where a widow throws herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. This practice was abolished in 1829 but there have still been reported cases in India. Jauhar is the practice of burning the living wives and even daughters of warriors who had been defeated. This was supposed to be a voluntary act meant to prevent the capture and rape by the enemy. This practice has not officially been banned in India. Purdah is a practice that is still common all over India. It is the act of requiring women to keep their bodies covered in order to disguise their form. The practice of purdah is not religious like most believe and the extent to which a woman must be covered is decided by whichever group has imposed the idea. The last drastic social injustice against women in India is devadasis. This is the marrying of a woman to a certain deity or temple. Later during the medieval period it became common for men to engage in the sexual exploitation of these women. Much of the violence and rights violations that women in India experience, come from the home. Jejeebhoy explains, â€Å"In most of India, in both north and south and among both Hindus and Muslims, the family is mainly patriarchal, patrilocal, and patrilineal. The country has long been known for in egalitarian gender relations (Altekar 1962; Karve 1965). Women are defined as inferior; husbands are assumed to â€Å"own† women, and to have the right to dominate them. In egalitarian gender relations deny women a decision-making role in family matters, inhibit them from moving about freely, prevent their access to material resources, and expose them to violence in the household† Jejeebhoy, 300). The limitations that are imposed on women are what help to keep them down. By keeping women down they are kept from knowing anything different, anything that will help them to become equal, protected people. Since India has become independent women are allowed to be a part of almost all public aspects of life. Areas like art, politics, science/technology, and education are ju st a few examples of Indian culture that women were not always allowed to be a part of. The fight of women for rights has lead to the government of India to view women as equal. Ray explains, â€Å"Analysis of the various identities through which women are mobilized can- not be complete without the recognition of the increased visibility of women in right wing movements in many parts of the world† (Ray, 51). The Constitution of India actually provides assurance of equal opportunity, pay, and no discrimination. The Indian government now also promotes humane work conditions and time off for maternity leave. Feminism did hit India, in a smaller way than in the United States and more than a decade later. Ray explains that the written word is what helped spread feminism and activism, â€Å"Literature on women's activism has shown that women are mobilized not only as women but also as mothers, workers, peasants, and citizens. Initially, scholars focused on interests, specifically whether such a thing as â€Å"women's interests† could be identified. More recently the focus has been on identities, specifically how identities mobilize women† (Ray, 48-49). A case of rape of a young girl in a police station kicked off several protests in the late 70s. This led to the formation of many NGOs that supported women’s rights and help feminism ideas spread to more rural communities. The formation of these NGOs also gave recognition to the overall lack in education and economic development for Indian women. The initial lack of technology and capitalism kept Indian women marginalized for a long time. It was not until India began to â€Å"Westernize† that women began to mobilize. Ray states, â€Å"The representatives of the first position argue that a rise in the levels of urbanization, industrialization, and education leads to an increase in women's mobilization (Chafetz & Dworkin 1986, Margolis 1993; for a critique see Basu 1995, Papanek 1993). It has become increasingly evident that this focus on the spread of capital- ism, or on general processes of urbanization, industrialization, and education obscures rather than illuminates the processes that shape women's movements† (Ray, 52). Globalization has also played a major role in India’s development and progress with women’s rights. After the spread of technology and women in third world countries were able to see and hear about the progress women had been making in other countries they themselves were able to rise up an organize. According to Ganguly-Scrase, â€Å"Globalization has and continues to have differential impacts on men and women (Basu 1995; Bergeron 2001; Freeman 2001; Oza 2001; Walby 2000). Since the mid- 1980s, India has pursued a policy of economic liberalization, which was a dramatic reversal of earlier policies of protecting domestic industrial capital. It has been argued that the privatization of public sector enterprises, reduction in public sector investment, and lower government expenditure on poverty eradication pro- grams have not served the interests of women† (Ganguly-Scrase, 545). Although India is behind in its literacy rate for women and there are fewer women enrolled in school compared to men, it does not mean the opportunity is not there. Ray states, â€Å"There currently exist two conceptualizations of conditions under which women mobilize. These conditions are either structural and universal or historically and locationally specific, with local variations obstructing or facilitating the specific forms of women's movements† (Ray, 52). Many families, especially in more rural communities, keep older traditions. Traditions where the women’s roles are to take care of their families and husbands and literacy and education are not primary concerns. There has been progress made towards achieving more equality among the number of girls and boys who attend and finish school. Organizations have been put into place to educate the people in rural communities in India. For many years the women of India have been mistreated and abused. These blatant violations of women’s rights have been swept under the carpet even after the Constitution was amended and India declared its independence from Great Britain. These feats and more have pushed the development of human rights for women in India, but there is still progress to be made. The way women have been and continue to be treated is a concern that women and men all over the world must face and work to correct. Until we recognize that not all places are as well off as we are, the injustices cannot be set right. Works Cited Amnesty International. â€Å"Women's Human Rights. † Amnesty International USA. Amnesty International, 2001. Web. 11 April 2010. Ganguly-Scrase, Ruchira. â€Å"Paradoxes of Globalization, Liberalization, and Gender Equality: The Worldviews of the Lower Middle Class in West Bengal, India. † Gender and Society 17. 4 (2003): 544-566. Web. 2 Apr 2010. Jejeebhoy, Shireen J. â€Å"Convergence and Divergence in Spouses' Persoectives on Women's Autonomy in Rural India. Studies in Family Planning 33. 4 (2002): 299-308. Web. 9 Apr 2010. Moursund, Anne. â€Å"Individual and Community Effects of Women's Education and Autonomy on Contraceptive Use in India. † Population Studies 57. 3 (2003): 285-301. Web. 2 Apr 2010. Purkayastha, Bandana. â€Å"The Study of Gender in India: A Partial Review. † Gender and Society 17. 4 (2003): 503-524. Web. 9 Apr 2010. Ray, R. , and A. C. Korteweg. â€Å"Women's Movements in the Third World: Identity, Mobilization, and Autonomy. † Annual Review of Sociology 25. (1999): 47-71. Web. 9 Apr 2010.

Development and induction Essay

The origin of leadership training in the USA has its origin in the 19th century when the first university Programme was started. Since then academic community has played a vital role in the training of school principals. The development of the Standards was administered by the National Center for History in the Schools at the University of California, Los Angeles under the guidance of the National Council for History Standards with funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the U. S. Department of Education. (Brundrett2001). In UK national standards were introduced in 1994-1997 for head teachers to be prepared for their increased demand in their roles. The national standards for head teachers in UK were first introduced by the minister for education. The minister believed that head teachers needed preparation and support in their responsibility and training of head teachers should be a must according to the central government and not the local government. Further, the concern for education minister was for the head teachers to gain practical experience important to their responsibilities. The relevant practical skills were more familiar to leaders and managers in the commercial sector than education sector For head teachers to receive relevant experience on their job they required practical skills. In the USA university education enjoy support from the government, although it faced challenges from the leadership development. There are only two public schools in the world that have adapted standards for school principal. These are the USA Inter state school leadership licensure consortium (ISLLC) in 1996 and the teachers training agency (TTA) in England. The reason for this is that traditional has tended to view head teachers responsibilities as leaders rather than resource manager. (Brundret, 2007). In the early 21st century there was great interest of leadership in education due to the widespread belief that the quality of leadership makes a considerable impact to school and student end results. There is also increasing recognition that schools require effective leaders and managers if they are to provide the best education for their pupils. Effective leadership in schools require committed and trained teachers but also support from other senior and middle managers. Though, the need for quality leadership is widely accredited, there is a reduced amount of assurance about which leadership behaviours are most likely to produce favourable results at the end of the day. Therefore, educational leadership and management, use different leadership models to ensure, relative efficiency in developing successful schools. (Bush, 2005). There are various models that were used in leadership in both USA and UK. They include; instructional leadership that focuses on pupil learning, moral style involves merging leadership with democracy and particular care for the young. Participative leadership focuses on shared decision making among all the stake holders in education sector. Managerial style focuses on supervisory ‘cold’ achievements on targets while contingent leadership is where the leader adapts his or her particle style of leading. Of all these styles, transformational is the most comprehensive as it offers productive approaches leader. Leadership training programme have emerged recently in the international field. In 2000 the national college for school leadership was established to provide training for leadership development and research (DFES, 2004). Initiatives for improving school leadership has taken place in the USA and UK. Leadership development in relation to internationalizing and globalization has made the UK and USA governments to promote leadership development aiming at school improvement and also exchanging school leaders’ experiences. (Brundret, 2001). School heads need to provide and seek for effective organization and management of schools. These can be achieved through organizational structure which reflects the school principles and also implement plans and policies for the development of school facilities Head teachers have also the duty to manage the school as a whole; in that they are accountable to the school community. That is pupils benefit from a high quality education and everyone work together to accept responsibilities of the outcome. Schools exist in social contest therefore; head teachers must build a culture and a curriculum that takes into account the diversity of the school’s community. Also ensure that the pupils learning experiences are integrated with the community. He should partner with other sectors in providing for the academic, moral, social, spiritual and cultural for the well being of the school community. Induction ensures head teachers make improvements in their jobs and the school environment. An efficient induction programme helps school leaders and the staff to settle in without being taken aback by lack of support. Induction into the schools involves orientation, personal introductions, understanding the job responsibilities, knowing where to find things and understanding the values and polices of the school. Preparations should reflect the diverse needs such as full-time, part-time, temporary and prior experience, and the level of contact with children. Generally, induction programme will depend on individual circumstances. A well implemented induction programme had rewarding benefits to the school. They include; ? Effectiveness in their responsibilities. ? Encourage more effective and dependable relationships with pupils and help raise standards of behavioural and attainment ? Reduces misunderstandings and breaches of procedures and rules ? Leaders feel valued and supported as it’s concerned with high morale ? Problems in learning can be identified and addressed in advance ? Schools can demonstrate they have fulfilled their legal obligation to explain health and safety, safeguarding procedures and other Government legislation ? Supports staff retention; the cost of induction is insignificant compared with the cost of recruiting and training replacement staff. In England ,national standards for head teachers were developed by Teacher training agency (TTA) and introduced in 1997 because they perceived the tasks of school heads were changing, they come up with standards that focused on shaping the future, leading, learning and teaching, working with others, managing the organization and securing accountability(DFES,2004) There is no appropriate leadership but there are qualities that are desirable. According to the government’s teacher training agency the main requirement is the ability to give a clear direction and purpose, make decision and adapt to the new ideas which entails understanding and keeping to date with current education and communication among all staff levels. These abilities are important to the task of school leaders as they define the vision, mission and objective of the school. Achievement and quality of teaching depends on leadership development. NCSL emphasized that the national standards for head teachers even should be both encouraging and target a range of users, including governors. The advice should be inspirational in that the standards convey the excitement of this important role and encouraging so that serving head teachers continue to work in a way that improves and transforms schools and contributes to the future development of the education sector. Inter state School Leaders Licensure Consortium acknowledges leader who promotes the achievement of all students by providing the development, performance, and stewardship that is shared and supported by the school community. The leader has knowledge and understanding of: learning goals in a whole society, the principles of developing and implementing strategic plans, effective communication, effective consensus-building and negotiation skills . A leader who promotes the success of all students by ensuring management of the organization, operations, and resources for efficient and effective learning environment. The leader has knowledge and understanding of: theories and models of organizations and the principles of organizational development and legal issues impacting school activities. Leadership that promotes the success of all students by partnering with families and community members, responding to diverse community interests and needs, and mobilizing community resources. The leader engages in activities ensuring that: high visibility, active participation and communication with the larger community is a priority and relationships with community leaders are identified. A school leader who promotes the integrity, fairness, and in an ethical manner. The leader believes in values and he is committed to: the ideal of the common good and the principles in the Bill of Rights (Bush, T. 2005) Well the quality of leadership is very important in school effectiveness. Participants receive input on aspects of leadership, opinion which they then use to examine their own work and that of their colleagues in the team. All fundamentals of this demanding programme are related to the needs of the particular team and will result in individual and team plans based upon necessary changes to improve performance. Even though different countries have significantly similar educational programme, for instance, the leader with strong emphasis in creating good practices including vision and mission. (Bush, 2005). Some countries have a programme for newly appointed school leaders like in England they have a budget to cater for head teachers personal professional development. This programme revolves around educational knowledge represented by research, participation in efficiency of schools and knowledge creation among the participants. Apart from school principals, deputy heads also undergo leadership development because some might seek school leadership roles. Another group of people that has to undergo leadership development programme are the middle managers, because they are mostly in classrooms. Some middle managers may be reserved about exercising leadership in what has been traditionally an idealistic profession and other members of staff may be unused to seeing them exercising this role. They then consider the impact they are making upon the various people they are responsible for leading and determine strategies for coping with the different demands by different people. Drawing from a survey carried out in North Carolina, training and learning increases experience and one must do the job to learn the job (Bush 2005) Leadership development requires action learning where individuals learn with and from each other and reflecting on their own experience. Mentoring is also important as the less experienced leaders learn from experienced this has been used in USA, Australia and England. Although, they make one to dependent on the mentor and time consuming leading to inefficiency in the long run. Coaching is also important in leadership development as it ensures commitment, good relationship, higher performance and good relationship. For school improvement leadership preparation is essential but as a result of globalization what worked well in a particular country might not be successful elsewhere. (Bush T 2005) National standards are useful as they ensures effectiveness in schools, pupils leave school when they are well fit, reduces mistakes, time management and the end result is quality service delivery. The value of standards also assumes quality leadership, consistency, good teaching practices, and the end product is pupil success. Consequently, standards reflect the mistaken idea for good leadership bringing about quality leadership but in reality it depends on the education values (orchard, 1994) Good leadership provides skill for the right strategies that lead to good performance in schools where practical skill among stakeholders are encouraged and responsibilities are shared. National Standards for head teachers were formulated following a meeting with teachers, head teachers, professional and subject associations, local authorities, higher education institutions and others from both inside and outside education. The Standards recognizes the main role that head teachers play in the development and delivery of government policy and in raising and maintaining levels of achievement in schools in order to meet the needs of every pupil. The National college school for leaders (NCSL) in UK has worked closely with school leaders in various schools to create a series of focus on how the national standards for head teachers have been put into framework by school leaders. The focus is anticipated to be a helpful resource for school leaders, offering ideas and possible ways to promote for schools trying to go with the National Standards with their individual framework. National standards for head teachers are applicable to school heads . They are intended to provide a context of professional development and action to serve aspiring head teachers. Therefore, standards have a range of uses. They assist in recruitment of school heads, provide guidelines to all stake holders as to what is expected from the head teacher and identify level of performance. Although, standards reflect wrong ideas about the quality of education. Different people have varying ideas about how to make education successful but in real sense for education to be worthwhile there must be formulated guidelines and good leadership in place. Also, standards can be educational idea rather than a value to quality leadership. (Orchard, 1994). Standards in schools do not portray the balance between professional qualities and leadership actions and it will be hard to measure goals and objectives. Standards have also portrayed a bad idea about experts in the educational sector; they assume that experts can judge educational achievement by the kind of leadership in place and also can take up positions from the experience they have from the industry. Standards also fail to differentiate responsibilities of good school leaders. In a democratic society justifiable leadership has to go hand in hand with productive decision making mechanisms. Use of standards is badly chosen at it assumes that all trained school leaders exercise good leadership. But standards cannot capture the all leadership qualities that are right or wrong for instance, in 2000 UK developed its national curriculum and all schools had to follow and you cannot suggest that its quality is right as all leaders in school have to be consistent with them. Therefore, this challenges standard because qualities and skills required for school leadership would be flexible to cater for individual school and pupil needs. Leadership at national level uses their efforts to improve education. Schools often function efficient where leaders serve the interest of the pupil are best served by less guidelines and therefore school leaders should be left to operate schools individually with limited set of rules. However, the key difference between the two counties is the continued existence and influence of the local education authorities in UK compared to USA where no existence of such, management of schools is influenced by the head teacher (DFES 2004) Unlike the National Curriculum in UK, their core subjects are: English, mathematics and science; USA follows a similar framework; however, schools can develop additional curriculum to meet individual pupils’ needs and circumstances. In UK school principal have the overall responsibilities and can be held accountable of any problem in schools unlike in the USA where the responsibilities are shared among all the stakeholders in the education industry (Orchard, 1994). Unlike in USA which provide leadership teams through its school leadership learning teams (SLLT) which involves ten sessions spread over two years, the national college school for leadership(NCSL) in UK has no such team and come up as a result of training head teachers from other members of their staff. Standards have dominated training and development of head teachers in UK and USA. Leading and managing schools is obligatory because these are public duties. Furthermore, from a professionally developed programme that reflect education on practical skills and qualities leaders are likely to be appreciated. Therefore, for them to be successful they should integrate academic programme, take account of their responsibilities and work together with the entire education industry. The development of more effective leadership for performance in schools should include; developing a customs where teachers and head teachers feel confident and empowered to participate fully in performance of school, the acknowledgement of professional responsibility to be involved in effective, sustained and relevant professional development throughout their careers and to contribute to the professional development of others, and the creation of an effective, sustained and relevant professional development as part of a wider review of teachers’ professional duties. For school effectiveness, improvement and providing culture within which teaching and learning will excel educational leadership has been viewed by many as an important element. Hence, training them has been of great importance especially, in UK where teachers aspiring to become head teachers, those newly appointed those head teachers who have been in post for some want to continue with their own professional development. The national standards for head teachers reflect education in schools. The main aim of head teacher is to provide professional leadership and management in schools through ensuring high quality teaching and learning opportunities for all pupils. For these to be viable the head teacher must have certain attributes like: knowledge and skills to actively participate in reflective learning to gain greater understanding his professional roles and management principle. Personal qualities and value are also important in a school leader; such qualities include commitment, integrity, consistency and confidence. Professional characteristics that clarify the diverse professional capabilities that help in understanding frameworks of accountability, promote social diversity and equal opportunities. (Brundret, 2001) REFERENCES Bush, T and Glover, D. (2005). `School leadership: concepts and evidence. London: Routledge. Brundrett, M. (2001). Development of school leadership preparation course in UK and America comparative analysis. Northampton: University of Leicester. Dfes, (2004) National standards for head teachers. London: Penguin. Hay, (2001). Management consultants. Leadership Programme for serving head teachers, London: Oxford University Press. Orchard, J. (1994), Are national standards for head teachers in England helpful? London: Institute of education

Benjamin Franklins Declaration of Independence

Franklin†s loyalty to America shows greatly throughout his life in his writings and jobs. Franklin†s many jobs included being an inventor, politician, author, statesman, philosopher, soldier, scientist, citizen, and a printer. Franklin helped stabilize America by helping to write the countries declaration of independence, which is only one of his many works. Benjamin Franklin†s leadership did not only influence the people of his time, but this great quality still influences the people of today. Many people today think of Franklin as a proud pillar of our national heritage. Most of Franklin†s education was self-taught through his hard work and dedication to learning. This education helped Franklin in many ways to write many books, outsmart other politicians, and create new inventions. Franklin knows he can not relive his life so decides that writing a book would be the next best thing. In Franklin†s autobiography, which he writes to his son, he tries to retell his mistakes so others will not do the same. One of Franklin†s strongest beliefs includes his religion. Franklin did not believe in organized religion and believed strongly in Deism. This shows his concern for other Americans. One of Franklin†s most contributive works to America besides his diplomacy was the Declaration of Independence. Not only did Franklin help write this document, but he was also the oldest person to sign it. Franklin published an annual book called Poor Richard†s Almanac. In this book Franklin included both important and useless information. Franklin predicted temperatures, told tales, included some of his favorite quotes, and had many fun facts published in this book. This is one of Franklin†s most famous quotes â€Å"Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.† (Perkins) This saying shows Franklin†s intelligence on time management. Here Franklin claims to be a precise, healthy, and wise person. Franklin†s inventions contributed greatly to both the world then, and the modern world. Franklin invented bifocals, the dumb waiter, the Franklin stove, and completed many experiments on electricity. Another of Franklin†s great contributions to America was establishing the first lending library, hospital, and fire station. Franklin worked on ideas such as better-paved and lighted streets. Benjamin Franklin was a â€Å"true American† because of his dedication to starting, sustaining, and stabilizing America as a country. Benjamin Franklins Declaration of Independence Franklin†s loyalty to America shows greatly throughout his life in his writings and jobs. Franklin†s many jobs included being an inventor, politician, author, statesman, philosopher, soldier, scientist, citizen, and a printer. Franklin helped stabilize America by helping to write the countries declaration of independence, which is only one of his many works. Benjamin Franklin†s leadership did not only influence the people of his time, but this great quality still influences the people of today. Many people today think of Franklin as a proud pillar of our national heritage. Most of Franklin†s education was self-taught through his hard work and dedication to learning. This education helped Franklin in many ways to write many books, outsmart other politicians, and create new inventions. Franklin knows he can not relive his life so decides that writing a book would be the next best thing. In Franklin†s autobiography, which he writes to his son, he tries to retell his mistakes so others will not do the same. One of Franklin†s strongest beliefs includes his religion. Franklin did not believe in organized religion and believed strongly in Deism. This shows his concern for other Americans. One of Franklin†s most contributive works to America besides his diplomacy was the Declaration of Independence. Not only did Franklin help write this document, but he was also the oldest person to sign it. Franklin published an annual book called Poor Richard†s Almanac. In this book Franklin included both important and useless information. Franklin predicted temperatures, told tales, included some of his favorite quotes, and had many fun facts published in this book. This is one of Franklin†s most famous quotes â€Å"Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.† (Perkins) This saying shows Franklin†s intelligence on time management. Here Franklin claims to be a precise, healthy, and wise person. Franklin†s inventions contributed greatly to both the world then, and the modern world. Franklin invented bifocals, the dumb waiter, the Franklin stove, and completed many experiments on electricity. Another of Franklin†s great contributions to America was establishing the first lending library, hospital, and fire station. Franklin worked on ideas such as better-paved and lighted streets. Benjamin Franklin was a â€Å"true American† because of his dedication to starting, sustaining, and stabilizing America as a country.

Research the principles of insulin production via genetic engineering Essay

Research the principles of insulin production via genetic engineering - Essay Example Today, however, insulin is commercially produced through genetic engineering, a process that makes available to diabetic patients worldwide massive quantities of the hormone without difficulty. Despite its evident usefulness, genetic engineering remains continuously haunted by ethical issues and considerations. II Homeostasis of Blood Sugar Level The human body maintains a consistent internal environment and one of the factors subject to this homeostasis is blood sugar, or glucose, level. At normal level, blood sugar in the body must be within 80 mg for every 100 cm3 blood. In the event that blood sugar falls below or rises above that level spurs the body mechanism to make corrective measures, a process called negative feedback, so as to restitute glucose to homeostatic level (Givens and Reiss 2002, p. 56). The homeostasis of glucose primarily involves the organs of pancreas and liver. As blood sugar level rises, such as after a high carbohydrate meal, the pancreas secretes insulin t o correct that level. Insulin is a hormone whose presence in the bloodstream indicates to the liver to start converting glucose into glycogen and store it. The amount of insulin in the bloodstream indicates the amount of glucose to be converted and stored. ... 56-57). III Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes mellitus (DM hereafter), the most common type of diabetes, is a disease caused by a metabolism disorder related to insulin function. Diabetes mellitus is defined by the World Health Organisation in 1980 as â€Å"a state of chronic hyperglycemia which may result from many environmental and genetic factors often acting jointly† (Ekoe 2008, pp. 5-6). There are four types of diabetes mellitus: type 1, which is insulin-dependent (IDDM); type 2, which is non-insulin dependent (NIDDM); diabetes secondary to other diseases, and; gestational diabetes, all of which have the common factor of hyperglycemia or high blood glucose. IDDM account for 5% to 10% of diabetes cases and NIDDM for 90% to 95%; the last two types account for remaining insignificant cases (Poretsky 2010, pp. 108, 116). Aside from hyperglycemia, the clinical symptoms of the disease usually include polyuria or the tendency for frequent passing of urine, polydipsia or excessive thirs t, polyphagia or excessive desire to eat, weight loss despite polyphagia, glycosuria or presence of glucose in the urine, ketoacidosis, visual changes, skin infections, sepsis and pruritus. However, except for hypoglycemia, not all patients suffer from all or the same symptoms and not all persons who suffer from any of such symptoms are necessarily afflicted with diabetes (Ekoe 2008, pp. 5-6). DM is widely thought to be caused by genetic factors, although the mechanism has not been exactly pinpointed. The etiological explanation, however, of the disease is autoimmunity in which ?-cells producing insulin are being destroyed resulting in insulin deficiency. The consequence is homeostatic failure of blood sugar level. Aside from genetic predisposition, infection and environmental

Psychological disorders and treament Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Psychological disorders and treament - Essay Example With this, the schizophrenic patient will be expected to display two or more of the characteristics: Delusions Hallucinations Disorganized speech Grossly disorganized behavior Negative symptoms 3. The duration of the experience for diagnosis is generally: 1 month of characteristic symptoms With 6 months of social/occupational dysfunction 4. The exclusion criteria are: Schizoaffective mood disorders Direct consequence of substance use or general medical condition Pervasive developmental disorders These diagnostic guidelines published in "Schizophrenia" by Steven R. Hirsch & Daniel Roy Weinberger (2003, Pages 10-11) can help in determining whether or not a patient has the symptoms of Schizophrenia, but they do not point to a clear cause for the disease. Research in Schizophrenia has developed around the Dopamine hypothesis, due to the effectiveness of Dopamine receptor blocking medications in the treatment of the disease historically. These are classified into typical anti-psychotics ( Thorazine, Haldol) and atypical anti-psychotics (Aripiprazole/Abilify, Olanzapine/Zyprexa, Seroquel/Quetiapine, etc.). Atypical anti-psychotics may be more effective and have a significantly reduced occurrence of side effects like Tardive Dyskinesia, but may still lead to substantial weight gain in patients. There is some controversy over the ethicality of the medications as administrated, but findings of effectiveness in typical anti-psychotic medications in the treatment of Schizophrenia led to the belief that Dopamine receptor blocking medications did assist in the alleviation of symptoms in patients and general improvement. (Lieberman, 2005) From this the latest atypical anti-psychotics seek to build upon Dopamine receptor blocking to extend to other neuro-chemical receptors in the brain, such as 5-HT2, Glutamate, or Serotonin. A receptor blocking medication of an atypical anti-psychotic may be prescribed to be taken at night, and a Serotonin receptor blocking agent like Prozac or Zoloft taken in the morning. This may be considered the most viable treatment for chronic patients suffering schizophrenic symptoms. Nevertheless, not all researchers are convinced that the Dopamine hypothesis illustrates the cause of schizophrenia, and there is a historical debate between the psychogenic origin of the disease, as advocated by Jung and others, and the genetic or neuro-chemical hypotheses. Some have suggested, like Bateson, that a â€Å"double bind† situation in the family or society could be the cause of the disease as an outgrowth of neurosis. (Guillaume, 2011) The social defeat hypothesis analyzes the prevalence of Schizophrenia among the poor, suggesting that there may be socio-economic issues relating to stress, diet, and learned patterns of defeat that cause Schizophrenia. (Selten & Cantor-Graae, 2005) However, it is also generally supposed that the schizophrenic patients have a genetic propensity to the disease that is heightened when stress, traumat ic events, abuse, or social problems overwhelm the individual and lead to an onset of the disease. The orthomolecular approach has targeted vitamin therapies as a â€Å"cure† to Schizophrenia popularly, but these are largely not replicable in scientific clinical studies. Vitamins

Financial Accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Financial Accounting - Essay Example Tesco’s performance in the two preceding year 2008 and 2009 has been good and the company has been performing with its best abilitites. Although the company has operated well, there are few areas that my need improvement. The profitability of the company has been good and has increased a bit but the net profit margin has decreased, indicating that the company’s conversion of its gross profit to net profit is rather low and it has gone bad in the year 2009 as compared to 2008. The liquidity is a bit shaky and needs some attention. The liquidity ratios calculated above clearly predict that the company is facing some working capital issues; the feasible result for the current ratio is 2:1, whereas the feasible result for acid test ratio would be 1:1. According to the ratios calculated, TESCO does not have the necessary current assets to deal with its current liabilities. The company as per the calculations above seems to have too many current liabilities (almost double to the amount of the current assets), such an effect is really alarming for any company and Tesco should clearly employ techniques to overcome this issue. The chairman has concluded that the company has performed well during the year end 2009 although there were major economic downturns for the global business environment due to which many weak companies collapsed. Considering that particular economic recession, TESCO has performed exceptionally well in the year 2009. Besides this, the chairman has pointed out on the acquisition of TESCO personal finance held by the Royal Bank of Scotland considering this an organic growth for the company. TESCO has certainly grown over the years and it would have been in a much better state if it was not for the global economic recession. Debenhams is a leading department stores group. Debenhams has a strong presence in key product categories including women’s wear, menswear, home wares, health and beauty, accessories,

TECHNIQUES FOR THE PREVENTION OF SOFTWARE PIRACY Essay

TECHNIQUES FOR THE PREVENTION OF SOFTWARE PIRACY - Essay Example You need to add a specific section on Scope (break Aim and Scope into 2 distinct sections – Aim and Objectives, and Scope). Aim and Objectives must have a specific Aim and then Objectives to achieve the Aim. Scope should include that you are only considering; 1 YOU NEED TO WORK ON THIS1. Section 2.1-> You state that both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to deduce the facts. Firstly this section states how the work is to be done so you should change the tense of everything in this section to read ‘are to be employed’. Secondly you need to explain more specifically which methods you employed fall into these categories. 3 OK2. Section 2.2. -> You must add some critical assessment of techniques. Currently only good points selected for web and email. Comparison and contrast required. What other techniques are available and why did you choose email against them. What are the potential limitations of email? 1 4. Section 2.4. -> You should rethink validation of the framework. How are you going to test the basis of the framework? For example, you identify factors from literature, but are all the relevant factors currently included? 1 OKa. You state that ‘This research to analyse the various types of software piracy that are briefed above †¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. Where is this analysis in the work? Either reword this sentence or add the analysis. 1 OKa. Cost towards bottom of page. Is this per seat or development costs? You need to provide a better discussion of cost and understand the specific types of cost which might be incurred. Cost is too broad a heading. 1 a. Time Limitation -> this is not a technology but a feature. Many of the technologies can include this feature. This should be discussed as a potential feature and then the technologies reviewed against the feature i.e. can they support it? This will also require changes to the framework. 2 YOU NEED TO WORK ON THISb. Each choice node requires some discussion,

Company Law Problem Question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Company Law Problem Question - Essay Example The company under consideration, Homemaker Limited had three persons on its board of directors namely Jenny, Louis and Chris. Out of these directors, the most active role was played by Chris who also tended to act as the Managing Director though this was never formally recognized in writing. This indicates that Jenny and Louis were more or less passive directors of the company. Homemaker Limited was construed for construction of homes only, but Chris sought to diversify business into equipment and furniture supply. The shortage of work in the construction industry forced Chris to diversify business but he did not register another company to do so. Instead, the platform of Homemaker Limited was utilized by Chris to supply Easy Birds Limited with equipment and furniture which stands in direct violation of the original constitution of Homemaker Limited. Given the fact that Homemaker Limited was struggling with capital requirements, Chris decided to borrow one and a half million pounds f rom Star Bank. The transactions with Star Bank were executed by Chris and Louis alone without the consent of Jenny. The mutual agreement that the consent of all directors was required for transactions above one million pounds is clearly violated by the behaviour of Chris and Louis in this regard. Poor performance on the part of Homemaker Limited resulted in losses in the equipment and furniture supply domains leading to contractual failure with Easy Birds Limited. The failure of this gamble meant that Homemaker Limited was unable to deal with its fiscal obligation with Star Bank leading to liquidation of the company. A number of problems emerge in regards to Homemaker Limited and its liquidation. The majority of these problems span the domains of director’s conduct and the validity of transactions that resulted. The discussion provided below will cover these issues in detail relating applicable statutes and their interpretation as per case law. 2. Applicable Law In terms of s tatutory law the current case’s circumstances are covered by the Companies Act 2006 (which expanded on and replaced parts of the Companies Act 1985). Given the fact that the company Homemakers Limited was registered in 2007, the applicable legal elements will be derived from the Companies Act 2006 alone. This also means that previous positions on certain issues will have been revised even if they were fortified by case law on the matter. One of the largest directions taken by the Companies Act 2006 has been the roles, responsibilities and conduct of directors. The duties of directors had already been expounded by the previous Act but the new Act has consolidated these matters further by codifying principal common law as well as the equitable duties of directors. However, it must be borne in mind that the new Act is by no means an exhaustive account of the duties of directors. This therefore tends to indicate that the duties of directors expounded by common law still survive a lbeit in a reduced form. The Companies Act 2006 has revisited the domain of director’s duties as per Chapter 2, General Duties of Directors. The Chapter has been divided into an introduction, the general duties of directors and the supplementary duties of directors. The new codifications (in context of the duties of directors) will be used to evaluate the conduct of directors at Homemaker Limited. 2.1. Section 170 – Scope and Nature of General Duties This section serves as the

STRATEGIC PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

STRATEGIC PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION - Essay Example Changing attitude of the companies to global gives relevance to strategic planning and implementation. An organizations strategic goal helps in directing the resources towards it. But strategic plan alone does not result in a successful implementation of the strategy. It depends upon the overall environment of the business i.e. its size, culture, market pressures etc. Studies show that strategic management led to increased performance of an organization in terms of its profit, market share etc. Strategic management decisions taken at all levels of management helps to evaluate and measure the benefits derived. It also helps in the creation of problem prevention culture in the organization. Strategic management offers a number of benefits to the organization practicing it. People could realize the importance of their working and what are expected from them. Better delegation, coordination, monitoring, performance evaluation and control. Strength and weakness of the firm could be identified. The word strategy has different meaning in different parlance. In business, there is no definite meaning and it is often used to mean a number of things. Alfred D Chandler had defined strategy as â€Å"the determination of the basic long term goals and objectives of an enterprise and the adoption of the courses of action and allocation of resources necessary to carry out these goals.†(Page no.26, Second Edition, Business Policy and Strategic Management, Azhar Khazmi). William F Gluek, a well known in the strategic management area has defined strategy as " a unified, comprehensive and integrated plan designed to assure that the basic objectives of the enterprise are achieved" (page no. 27, Business Policy and Strategic Management, Azhar Khazmi, Second Edition).   Unified refers that the strategic plan joins all levels of an organization, comprehensive refers all aspects

Pot Holes Everywhere Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pot Holes Everywhere - Essay Example This is because they have the infrastructure and the capacity. However, the benefits and cost implications for this company is not stated. The relationship between the companies DelDot the Ministry of Transport is not explicit. The proposed solution is an ideal solution to the problem according to how it has been presented in the executive summary. However, it has not stated how the app will be picking up new potholes and updates them to the system. This may be a great danger because users may not be keen on potholes as they depend on the app. The other challenge is what if there are many potholes at a given location that cannot be captured in the system. This project is not feasible because of the technology involved. It is not also feasible because weather patterns changes and results into potholes frequently; capturing each and every pothole is a challenge. There are areas that there is poor internet reception. How will they resolve the problem? The market aspect is also a challenge, if the transport department does not approve the app by DelDot will not have the market. They may also design their own app. Generally, this executive summary desires a lot. The summary is well written but the technology is not well written. Carabello, Blase A., and FAHA Kanu Chatterjee. "ACC/AHA 2006 practice guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: executive summary."  Journal of the American College of Cardiology  48.3

First Documentary Essay Example for Free

First Documentary Essay Robert Flaherty’s classic film tells the story of Inuit hunter Nanook and his family as they struggle to survive in the harsh conditions of Canada’s Hudson Bay region. I’d say that the vast majority of footage is staged, in the sense that Flaherty told the actors what to do in order to fit the frame. Yet there is a weird authenticity to what Flaherty ends up with, probably because of all the stories and local culture he had absorbed in the months preceding. Flaherty’s aim was to document a way of life, not a series of incidents that happened to occur while his camera was on. He represents his subject to the audience, portraying staged events as real but on the other hand, the theme is the battle of humans against nature and the fight for survival in a hostile environment. Although the film is only showing a few people, it can be seen as an exploration of the world of a different people and their culture. Much of the action was staged and gives an inaccurate view of real Inuit life during the early 20th century. Nanook was in fact named Allakariallak, for instance, while the wife shown in the film was not really his wife. And although Allakariallak normally used a gun when hunting, Flaherty encouraged him to hunt after the fashion of his ancestors in order to capture what was believed to be the way the Inuit lived before European influence. The most impressive characteristic in his way of filming is how he spent a few months in the Arctic to record the daily life of the Eskimo, Nanook and his family on camera (the hunting, fishing, building of igloos, fur-trading, child care, and the sleigh-dogs). Its dramaturgic and narrative sophistication is by showing the daily life of Nanook and his family, Flaherty avoids a reserved or distanced position from the protagonists and allows for the audience to identify with them, although they are exotic primitives, Flaherty’s Eskimos are acting subject, no ethnographical objects . Additionally, Flaherty did not show any signs of the clumsiness of a beginner in his cinematographic abilities. Not only did he know how to take good pictures, he also knew how to tell stories with them. He used long takes mainly, which are realized by a motionless position of the camera (with only a few pans) and the action is caught mainly using a medium close-up distance of framing. Like his models, Flaherty used a linear narrative in chronological order, mostly unedited and story-lines are not resolved. Also, following their fashion, he used dramatic effects by restricting the view with the camera to create suspense; by letting pictures run through the frame slowly, disclosing their meaning and purpose only gradually. A good example for this is the opening sequence, introducing the dramatis personae: Nanook and his family, Nyla, his wife with the youngest baby on her arms, the children Allee, Cunayou, and Comock, and the husky. This way of filming expresses the exploration of the world of a different people and their culture. We see the hunters creeping inch by inch upon a herd of slumbering walruses, and then Nanook springing up and harpooning one, and then a fierce struggle in which the mate of the walrus joins the battle. Such scenes simplify Inuit life to its most basic reality. In this land the only food comes from other animals, which must be hunted and killed. Everything the family uses; its food, fuel, clothing and tools, comes in some way from those animals, except for the knives and perhaps harpoon points, which they obtain at a trading post. The effects created here is the fact that a lot of the action in Nanook was initiated by the Eskimos themselves, such as the walrus hunt. This becomes clear during the take in which a fur-trader attempts to entertain Nanook with a gramophone. Nanook plays the simple-minded wild man who uses his teeth to check how the white man conserves his voice on a record. The other example, is during the he construction of an igloo. Nanook and his friends carve big blocks of snow and stack them in a circle, carving new ones from the floor so that it sinks as the walls rise and curve inward to form a dome. Then he finds sheets of ice, cuts holes in the igloo walls, and inserts the ice to make windows. There is another igloo, a smaller one, for the dogs. And inside the big igloo, the tiniest igloo of all, for puppies, which the big dogs would quickly eat. Conclusions Although the story of Nanook’s family is unscripted, Flaherty approached them with a preconceived idea of what he would film. Accounting for decisions about what would and would not be filmed, the notion that he has captured real life becomes vague. The Eskimos look directly at the camera, aware that they are being filmed. Flaherty even brought film processing equipment with him, so he could develop and view the reels as he shot them. The Eskimos viewed the reels as well and understood what was going on. Furthermore, Flaherty intended to create a feature film, as features were popular in theaters at the time. He included aspects of features in his work such as dramatic narrative, characters with personalities, conflicts and resolutions. At 79 minutes, it was considered feature length at the time. He simply chose to use unscripted, uncostumed non-actors in a natural setting. References Robert Flaherty. Nanook of the North: A story of life and love in the actual arctic.

A Man Of The People Essay Example for Free

A Man Of The People Essay Every good citizen makes his countys honor his own, and cherishes it not only as precious but sacred. He is willing to risk his life in its defense and its conscious that he gains protections while he gives it. This quote by Andrew Jackson reflects his views as a president, military leader, and American citizen. Jackson sought to act as the direct representative of the common man. He strove to listen to the wants and needs of the common people. From humble beginnings, Jackson studied law for three years to become a lawyer and was then elected to the House of Representatives. After he served as a General in the War of 1812, he was a war hero and was elected the 7th President of the United States in 1828. Born on the border of North Carolina and South Carolina in a backwoods settlement in 1767, no one thought that Andrew Jackson would achieve as much greatness in his lifetime as he did. At the age of thirteen, Jackson joined the army to fight in the Revolutionary War as a courier. Jacksons father died only a few weeks before he was born, and his mother passed in his early teens, leaving him orphaned at the age of fourteen. After his mother died, he went to live with his uncles, where he studied law for three years. Before going to live with his uncles, Jackson had received a very sporadic education. But after studying law in Salisbury, North Carolina he became a prosecuting attorney in Nashville, Tennessee and soon began his political career. In 1796, Jackson was a member of the convention that established the Tennessee Constitution and, that same year, was elected Tennessees first representative in the U.S. House of Representative. He was elected to the Senate the following year, but resigned after serving only eight months. In 1798, Jackson was elected a judge of the Tennessee Supreme Court, serving in that position until 1804. Jackson was appointed commander of the Tennessee militia in 1801. During the War of 1812 he led his troops to victory against the Creek Indians at Horseshoe Bend, killing some 800 warriors and gaining 20 million acres of land in present-day Georgia and Alabama. After this military success, Jackson was appointed major general. After leading 5,000 soldiers in the defeat of 7,500 British in New Orleans, on January 8, 1815, Jackson was dubbed a national hero. He received the thanks of Congress and a gold medal. More than any president before him, Andrew Jackson was elected by popular vote. He became a democratic symbol and founder of the Democratic Party, the countrys most venerable political organization. During his two-term presidency, he expanded executive powers and transformed the Presidents role from chief administrator to popular tribune. He also carved out a stronger role for the presidency. Jackson replaced many government officials on partisan grounds, inaugurating the spoils system. Catering to his core regional constituency of Southern planters and Western frontiersmen, he condemned antislavery agitation, favored cheaper public lands, and strong-armed Indian tribes into removing west of the Mississippi. Every good citizen makes his countys honor his own, and cherishes it not only as precious but sacred. He is willing to risk his life in its defense and its conscious that he gains protections while he gives it. This quote by Andrew Jackson reflects his views as a president, military leader, and American citizen. Although from humble beginnings, Jackson was a fierce leader and dedicated to serving the people of the country he led.

Cyclo-oxygenase inhibitors of human diseases

Cyclo-oxygenase inhibitors of human diseases Historical background Cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors are a widely prescribed group of antipyretics and analgesics worldwide and are important component in the treatment of inflammatory conditions. Although first COX inhibitor was discovered more than a decade ago their origin dates back to ancient Mediterranean descent1. Back and other body pains where treated using extracts of poplar tree bark and leaves of myrtle. Use of willow bark emerged far more lately and its first appearance was reported in England in 17631. As was later discovered, the essence of the willow bark possessing anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties was salicin. Further modification of its structural properties allowed generation of salicylic acid that eventually was developed via Kolbe reaction using phenol1,3. In 1899 Bayer company went ahead in synthesising more susceptible derivative of it, acetylsalicylic acid and named it aspirin. Following this phenylbutazone (1949) and indomethacin (1963) came along however the mystery of mechanism of their action in the body was not yet developed. It was not known until 8 years later when an idea surrounding the synthesis of prostaglandins within body was revealed and for which a Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine was awarded (1982)1. It was proposed that first non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), aspirin, acted upon inhibition of an enzyme that played role in utilising unsaturated fatty acids into biochemical molecules exerting their action in conditions such as inflammation, pain, and fever and platelet synthesis. It was accepted that during changes occurring within stimulated cells and tissues prostaglandins synthesis was taking place 1,3. Structure of COX was isolated in 1976 and its second isoform was confirmed around 14 years later by few different laboratory investigations; investigations which greatly allowed appreciating the nature of first nonselective cox inhibitors NSAIDs in the treatment of human diseases1. 1.1 The pharmacology and chemistry of cyclooxygenase enzyme Cyclooxygenase (COX aka PGG2/H2 synthase) belongs to the family of enzymes known as myeloperoxidases and it is the crucial enzyme in the synthesis of prostaglandins, prostacyclin and tromboxane A2 resullting from the conversion of arachidonic acid (AA) 2,4. This heme-containing COX enzyme is a bifunctional biocatalyst with two interconnected active sites: cyclooxygenase and peroxidase which action involves generation of hydroperoxy endoperoxide PGG2 via cyclooxygenase cycle (Fig.1.) into its reduced form of hydroxy endoperoxide (PGH2) (Fig. 2.) 2,4. Both isoforms of COX enzyme are expressed in endothelial, monocytic and renal cells with COX-2 being more profound in inflammatory and cancer tissues. Both enzymes are characterised by signal peptide, endothelium growth like factor (EGF) region, membrane in-bound domain, catalytic part, interface between monomers and N-linked polysaccharides residues2. The signal peptide in COX-1 consists of 23 residues whereas COX-2 has only 17. The EGF like region constitutes a major part of the interface and is not found in other myeloperoxidases. It is involved in Cys-Cys cross linked bridges with lack of Cys9 in COX-1 and Cys512 in COX-2. The membrane in-bound domain accounts for 33% of overall similarity and 24% of identity within membranous face. This domain is described as consisting of 4 amphipathic a helices that surround the entry to the COX site. The catalytic part is known to be the largest part of the enzyme with remained homology between other myeloperoxidases. 180Â ° rotation between subunits is preserved with chemical interaction between polar, ionic and hydrophobic moieties. Differences in residue positioning prevent heterodimerization and dissociation from facial interaction inactivates the enzymes overall catalytic activity 1,2,3,4,5. Figure 1. Mechanism of COX cycle in cyclooxygenase active site showing free radicals formation denoted by ? prior to PGH2 synthesis in POX pathway (not shown) 2. Attraction of hydrogen atom from Tyr385 by peroxyl radical of PGG2 allows for the regeneration of the steps of the reaction in the COX cycle of prostanoid biosynthesis. The coloured boxes are to indicate the origin of oxygen atoms. PLA2 phospholipase A2, S secretory, C cytoplasmic. Figure 2. A diagram summarising changes made to AA in the distinct active sites of the PGG2/H2 synthase and products formed via action of each catalytic active site 2. 1.2 The nature of cyclooxygenase inhibition in the human body Inhibition of cyclooxygenase action is desired in the treatment of human diseases. Not only because it suppresses the inflammatory production of prostaglandins in the conditions such as: dysmenorrhoea, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis but also because it prevents platelet aggregation, suppresses tumour growth and prevents cancer5. Until 1994 it was not clear by which mode, mechanism or process inhibition of COX was carried out. Just complexation studies between COX and flurbiprofen allowed insight into molecular basis of COX inhibition. The investigation led by Garavito and his colleagues proposed such model of inhibition. In his model it was suggested that the enzyme in question possesses long hydrophobic path that originates from in-membrane bound moiety up to the heart of the dimer subunit. Blocking this channel stops the endogenous substrate (AA) from binding hence possible intervention in the process of prostaglandins biosynthesis5. 1.3 The types of cyclooxygenase inhibitors in the treatment of human diseases There are several types of COX inhibitors available in the treatment of human diseases. The very first one, aspirin, is known to act through non-selective and irreversible manner. As this manner suggests aspirin binds to both types of COX enzyme by acetylating Ser530 residue upon covalent modification. Consequently effects such as risk of excessive bleeding, ulcer formation or foetal deformation limit the use of aspirin in dealing with long term diseases. Nowadays it is mainly considered as the important component in the treatment of cardiovascular conditions due to its anti-platelet activity 1,3. Other types of non-selective NSAIDs such as piroxicam, ibuprofen or diclofenac, constitute majority of therapeutic agents being prescribed however due to harmful effects they are being considered less effective in the long term treatment. The damage to the gastrointestinal (GI) system is due to inhibition of COX-1 expressed in GI mucosa which results in formation of ulcers with associated bleeding. Therefore since the main target for choosing those drugs is found to be of inflammatory nature (inhibition of COX-2) they are nowadays preferred in topical dosage forms 1,3,5. The consequence of the undesired effects caused by non-selective COX inhibitors targeted new approach towards development of more specifically acting agents. The era began on discovery of the second isoform of cyclooxygenase and introduction of first COX-2 selective agent (1999) was introduced to the market within 10 years since its discovery with celecoxib and rofecoxib for the treatment of arthritis. The discovery proposed mechanism of actions of both enzymes within the body with COX-1 possessing more constitutive effects especially in GI tract. It was therefore suggested that COX-2 was an inducible form in conditions such as inflammation and pain, symptoms desired in treatment of human diseases associated with the effects of COX-2 isozyme 1,3. 2. ASPIRIN THE ORIGINAL COX INHIBITOR (Joyce) 2.1. Pharmacology and chemistry of Aspirin Plant ingredient salicin was discovered in the willow bark and leaves in the 17th century by a greek physician (Hippocrates) who prescribed it as an analgesic and antipyretic. Further into the 17th century a crude form of salicylic acid was made by a German scientist (Charles Frederic von Gerhardt). This was followed by production of a purer form of salicylic acid by another German chemist (Karl Johann Kraut). Finally in 1897 a German chemist Felix Hoffmann, who worked for the pharmaceutical company Bayer, was assigned the task to find a better derivative of salicylic acid. He also had his own personal reasons for wanting to find a better derivative. His father had been taking salicylic acid for his arthritis pain but could no longer take it without vomiting3,7. In 1889 Hoff man then found a way of acetylating the hydroxyl group on the benzene ring of salicylic acid to form acetylsalicylic acid. Hoffman father tried the new derivative and it was pronounced effective. The name ‘ASPIRIN was given to the drug by Bayer chief pharmacologist Henrich Dreser7. Aspirin was found to have antipyretic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. It does this by inhibiting cyclo-oxygenase(COX) or prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase(PGHS) enzyme irreversibly. COX is responsible for cyclizing arachidonic acid and adds the 15-hydroperoxy group to form PGG2 which is the precursor to prostaglandins. An enzyme perioxidase is responsible for reducing the hydroperoxy group of PGG2 to the hydroxyl group of PGH2.(4)(See Figure 15- prostaglandins synthesis) Prostaglandins can be described as chemical mediators that produce a variety of strong physiological effects in the body. Most importantly they are responsible for the activation of the inflammatory response, production of pain, and fever. There are three isoforms of the COX enzyme of which aspirin has an effect on two which are COX-1 and COX-2. Aspirin binds covalently modifiying COX-1 through acetylation of its Ser-530 and COX-2 through acetylation of its serine 516 residue by placing a bulky constituent (acetyl) and this directly inhibits binding of arachidonic acid. Aspirins action is more potent against COX-1 than against COX-2. This difference in inhibition of the two COX enzymes by aspirin is due to the larger volume of the COX-2 active site produced by the Val-523 substitution at the side pocket. (1,7, 9) The difference in the size of the active site has been exploited by pharmaceutical companies to develop selective COX-2 inhibitors (section 4) COX-1 is an essential enzyme expressed in majority of tissues and also in platelets. It is responsible for prostaglandin production involved in homeostatic mechanisms e.g. platelet aggregation, gastric wall protection, regulation of renal blood flow and initiation of labour in childbirth. In contrast, COX-2, is an inducible form which becomes up regulated by inflammatory mediators such as cytokine (Interleukin and tumour necrosis factor). 2.2 The problems associated with aspirin(1, 10) a. Unwanted effects GASTRIC PROBLEMS The inhibition of COX 1 can produce gastric disturbances as an unwanted effect because the prostaglandin production in the GI tract is a homeostatic mechanism to protect the gastric mucosa. It causes inherent symptoms like heartburn; dyspepsia, nausea, and abdominal pain. (1, 10)This effect can cause Aspirin users to change or discontinue its use. Some of these inherent symptoms are quite common for most NSAIDs. Secondly it can also causes gastro duodenal mucosal lesions such as erosions and asymptomatic ulcers, which may or may not heal spontaneously; and finally more serious gastro ulcers with life-threatening complications like perforation, symptomatic ulcers, and bleeding ulcers. Symptoms of this could be black, bloody, or tar like stools or vomiting/coughing up blood REYES SYNDROME Reyes syndrome is a collection of symptoms consisting of altered consciousness, convulsions, low blood glucose, and enlargement of the liver associated with fatty infiltration of the liver. It is a deadly disease, which can strike any child, teenager, or adult without warning. All body organs are normally affected, but the liver and brain are antagonised the most. In 1965 it was stipulated that Reyess syndrome can be caused by the administration of aspirin in children under 16years of age. There is no discovered mechanism for the role of salicylate in this but it is thought that aspirin enhances the release of tumour necrosis factor which induces apoptosis of cells which can cause inflammation, viral replication e.t.c. SALICYLISM This is caused by the excessive ingestion of aspirin. There are two main pathways in the metabolism of aspirin. (10)Phase 1 reaction that involves the oxidation of aspirin to salicylic acid by a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase. By addition of a reactive group (OH) to get it ready for conjugation to a soluble component and hence aid excretion. This conjugation involves the attachment of small polar molecules glycine and gluconoride to salicylic acid. This results in further deactivation of the aspirin and the production of water-soluble metabolites that will be readily excreted in the urine or bile. The pathway conjugated with glycine, is the one that is easily overloaded in cases of toxicity. Thus elimination of salicylic acid slows down and accumulation leads to a variety of side effects. Below are the pathways showing oxidation and conjugation. This excess salicylate produces toxic effects include below. Ringing in ears Hyperventilation which causes increase in CO2- respiratory alkalosis, Dehydration: increased water loss due to hyperventilation Loss of carbonic acid metabolic acidosis. This in turn will reduce the blood pH, and make aspirin return to its non-ionised form allowing free aspirin in the blood stream. Hyperthermia. These pathways overload uncouples the energy producing processes (oxidative phosphorylation) of the mitochondria thus causing production of heat rather than ATP. Fatality especially in children Interactions with other drugs Reduced effect of aspirin if given with ibuprofen and avoid concomitant use of aspirin with NSAIDS due to increased side effects. Increase risk of bleeding when aspirin is given with coumarins, SSRIs, clopidogrel, illoprost, and sibutramine, Aspirin enhances effect of Heparins, Phenytoin, Valporate, Aspirin antagonises effect of Spirolactone, Sulfinpyrazone and Probenacid Rate of excretion of aspirin is increases by some antacids. The effect of aspirin on the gastrointestinal tract may be enhanced by the intake of alcohol and corticosteroids. 3. NON STEROIDAL ANTINFLAMMATORY DRUGS NON SELECTIVE COX INHIBITORS (Christina) 3.1 Isozymes of Cyclooxygenase Cyclooxygenase has various isozymes. The main isozymes are COX-1 and COX-2, however there is now evidence of a third form- COX-3. COX, originally known as prostaglandin H synthase is responsible for the oxidation of arachadonic acid to prostaglandin G2 and prostaglandin H2. It catalyses the reaction in which the arachadonic acid substrate and two molecules of O2 are converted to prostaglandin G2 and then in the perioxidase reaction Prostaglandin G2 is reduced to PGH2 by a 2 electron reduction. The COX isozymes are heme containing enzymes that are homodimers. Each monomer contains three main domains; A membrane binding domain, a N-terminal epidermal growth factor domain and a C-terminal catalytic domain. COX-1 is made up of 602 amino acids while COX-2 is comprised of 604.3 The catalytic reaction in COX takes place in a hydrophobic channel in the core of the enzyme while the peroxidise reaction takes place in the heme containing region near the surface of the enzyme. The membrane binding domain consists of four alpha helices with one helix that fuses with the catalytic domain. These helices congregate around an opening and through these openings fatty acids and NSAIDS are considered to enter the active site. The COX-1 isozyme is considered a constitutive enzyme. It is present in high volumes in most cells and tissues i.e. renal collecting tubules, monocytes, endothelium etc. However COX-2 is hardly noticeable in most cells, it is an inducible enzyme so it becomes more abundant in cells or tissues when macrophages are activated or by any other inflammation mediators e.g. TNF-a (tumor necrosis factor-alpha) or IL-1 (interleukin-1).5 Both COX-1 and COX-2 isozymes are attatched to the endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear envelope. The COX isozymes need to be N-linked glycosylated to enable them to be folded and attatched to the endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear envelope. The COX isozymes have very similar structures for their binding site, catalytic mechanisms and produce the same biosynthetic products3 COX-3 COX-3 a third isozyme was discovered in 2002 by Simmons and co-workers. They conducted a study on dogs and this resulted in them discovering a novel COX-1 splice variant termed COX-3 that was sensitive to acetaminophen (paracetamol). It was suspected for a while that acetaminophen worked by inhibiting a different specific isozyme due to the fact that it did not directly inhibit COX-1 and COX-2 very effectively at therapeutic concentrations but it generated prostanoids in neuronal systems. 3, 15 The Simmons and co-worker group showed that acetaminophen was the actual target for COX-3, and that it acted separately from COX-1 and COX-2. 3 Canine COX-3 is a membrane bound protein consisting of 613 amino acids with a molecular weight of ~65 kDa. It has a high expression in cells and tissues like COX-1 suggesting it may be a constitutive enzyme. However the question that needs to be asked is if generalisations can truly be made on the presence of COX-3 in humans based on Canine studies, so future experiments need to be designed to clarify whether a human COX-3 actually does exist that acts independently from COX-1 and COX-2 in vivo. 14 NSAIDs are known to inhibit COX in order for them to exhibit their anti-inflammatory actions, a structural NSAID binding study was carried out. The COX-1 active site contains a long hydrophobic channel that extends from the membrane binding domain to the core of the COX monomer. The tip of the COX active site houses Tyr385 that is located near the heme iron. Ser530 is positioned just below Tyr385 and that is the site for aspirin acetylation. Glu524 and Arg120 are positioned at the mouth of the COX-1 channel. A typical NSAID such as fluobriprofen, when introduced to the COX enzyme, its carboxylate moiety is usually directed towards the mouth of the COX-1 channel in order for it to be positioned in the most ideal place that will allow it to interact with the two polar residues Glu524 and Arg120. From these studies a better insight into the binding profiles of NSAIDs were observed. Non selective NSAIDs can bind in three different ways: Reversibly (e.g. Ibuprofen) Fast, low affinity reversible binding followed by a higher affinity, time dependant slowly reversible binding (e.g. fluobriprofen) Rapid, reversible binding followed by a covalent modification of the enzyme (e.g. Aspirin) 3 Arg120, Glu524, Tyr355 and His90 form a network of hydrogen bonds at the entrance of the COX channel acting like a gate to the binding site. NSAIDs generally bind between the upper portion of the COX channel near Tyr 385 and Arg 120 which is at the mouth of the COX channel. 3 Through the use of hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions, the carboxyl moiety of acidic NSAIDs like fluoribiprofen interact with Arg120 in both COX isozymes. The significant differences in the structure of the binding sites for both COX isozymes has been manipulated to enable the design of selective COX-2 inhibitors. In the COX-2 active site there is an extra accessible pocket due to the presence of a smaller valine amino acid residue at position 523 and a valine substitution at position 434, unlike COX-1, this difference increases the overall volume at the COX-2 active site by about 20%. 1 This means that due to reduced steric and ionic crowding at the mouth of the channel by Arg120, non acidic selective COX-2 inhibitors can show an enhanced and specific binding to the COX-2 enzyme. Another structural difference exists at the amino acid residue 513 where COX-1 has a histidine residue and COX-2 has an arginine moiety. 1 These small differences provides flexibility in the substrates that can be utilised in the COX-2 active site. 3.2 Problems Associated With Non Selective Non Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs NSAIDs are one group of drugs that are regularly used by the worlds population to relieve pain, reduce inflammation and lower temperature. They are COX inhibitors and act to inhibit the catalysation of arachadonic acid to PGH2. COX-1 is constitutively present in most cells while COX-2 is induced by chemical mediators of inflammation and activated macrophages.13 COX-1 and COX-2 as mentioned above have 2 specific roles. The 1st role gives PGG2 and the other role is in the peroxidise reaction that gives PGH2. Both COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitors work by inhibiting the 1st and main role i.e. inhibiting the conversion of arachadonic acid to PGG2. COX-1 and COX-2 possesses hydrophobic channels within their core. The classical NSAIDs exhibit their effects by blocking these enzymes halfway down the COX channel near Tyr385 and the Arg120 which is at the mouth of the COX channel by hydrogen bonding to the Arg120 residue. This results in the prohibition of any fatty acid substrates from entering the catalytic domain of the COX enzyme.3 In COX-1, these drugs tend to inhibit the enzyme quickly yet generally the inhibition is often reversible, however in COX-2 the inhibition is time dependant and often results in irreversible inhibition. As mentioned before, the COX-1 and COX-2 isozyme differ slightly. In the COX-2 active site there is an extra accessible side pocket due to the presence of a smaller valine amino acid residue at position 523 instead of isoleucin as in COX-1. This is important for understanding why some NSAIDs are selective for the COX-2 isozyme.13 There are a number of side effects associated with traditional NSAID therapy. NSAIDs can cause renal failure, liver damage/disorders, aseptic meningitis, skin reactions and bone marrow disturbances which can interfere with bone fracture healing. However amongst them all gastrointestinal (GI) toxicities is amongst the most common. These are believed to arise from the inhibition of COX-1 in the gastric mucosa.14 GI toxicities In humans and other species it has been shown that COX-1 not COX-2 is constitutively expressed throughout the GI tract.13 COX-1 is responsible for the synthesis of prostaglandins like PGE2 and PGI2 which are responsible for protecting the GI mucosa by reducing acid secretion in the stomach by the parietal cells, increasing blood flow in the mucosa and stimulating the release of viscous mucous. This leads to conditions of ulcers, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting and can even lead to gastric bleeding in some cases. These undesirable side effects have led to the development of COX-2 selective inhibitors. These drugs are effective anti-inflammatorys and reflect good analgesic effects. They have considerable less gastric damage due to the fact they selectively inhibit COX-2 with minimal action on COX-1. Unfortunately the use of COX-2 selective drugs has been associated with increased incidence of myocardial infarction and stroke.3 Renal effects Prostaglandins especially PGE2 and PGI2 are involved in regulating renal blood flow and vascular tone. Recent studies have shown that COX-2 is constitutively expressed in the macula densa, epithelia cells lining the ascending loop of henle and medullary interstitial cells of the renal papillae, while COX-1 is constitutively expressed in the collecting ducts, loop of henle and in the vasculature. The COX-2 enzyme is associated with normal renal function and inhibition of COX-2 results in NSAID-induced sodium retention while inhibition of COX-1 results in a disease in glomerular filtration rate.3 This conclusively tells us that both COX-1 and COX-2 are involved in the physiology of the kidneys. However therapeutic doses in patients with normal renal function are at little risk of renal complications. It is mostly neonates and the elderly who are more susceptible as well as patients with heart, liver or kidney disease. 4. SELECTIVE COX 2 INHIBITORS (Nadine) 4.1 Reasoning behind selective inhibition 4.2 Benefits and risks 5. MECHANISM OF ACTION OF COX INHIBITORS IN HUMAN DISEASES 5.1 Analgesic (Joyce) Pain can be defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage. Pain is a self protection mechanism which helps of forces us to identify danger and move away from it. It is one of the main symptoms used to identify a condition in medicine. Removing pain is very essential in terms of either eliminating the disease or condition or in fact suppressing its effect. This can be done by the use of medicines called analgesics. Pain receptors also called nociceptors are present on special nerve fibres that are sensitive to noxious of harmless stimuli. The stimulation of these receptors are on A-delta and C-fibers which are located in skin, connective tissue, viscera, muscle e.t.c. COX inhibitors act by blocking transmission to peripheral nerves. Pain associated with I. Arthritis Arthritis is the inflammation of joints. The inflammation and movement of the joints cause extreme pain in the sufferer. There are two major types a. Osteoarthritis(10) This is a chronic disease that features the breakdown of the joints cartilage. Cartilage is flexible connective tissue found in between joints that cushions or protects the ends of the bones and allows easy mobility of joints. This breakdown of cartilage causes the bones to rub against each other creating friction, causing joint tension, pain and loss of mobility in the joint. There are different types of arthritis of which osteoarthritis is most common; it can also be referred to a degenerative joint disease. There are two types of osteoarthritis, primary of which is associated with old age, general wear and tear of the cartilage. And secondary where it occurs where there is a cause example obesity, trauma, or hereditary. Treatment: Paracetamol may be considered as first line therapy for Osteoarthritis patients with mild to moderate pain. If the pain does not respond to paracetamol or patient has severe symptoms then other traditional NSAIDs like Ibuprofen, diclofenac or coxibs should be used. Coxibs have shown to produce reduced GI side effects. However they have the probability of increasing cardiovascular risk because they inhibit prostacyclin production in endothelial cells but not thromboxane in platelets, hence this can increase the chance of a thrombus formation. The choice of a coxib or a specific NSAID should be based on the patient characteristics and risk factors. b. Rheumatoid arthritis(12 ) This is an autoimmune disease of unknown origin whose major characteristic is the inflammation and erosion of the synovial membrane or synovium. This membrane lines and surrounds the joint and synovial cavity. The synovium secretes a slightly viscous, clear fluid known as synovial fluid, which lubricates cavity that lies between the cartilage and joint on the bone. In Rheumatoid arthritis accumulation of the synovial fluid builds up within the joint space and causes inflammation. This makes the joint look and feel swollen. Rubor occurs do to the increased blood flow to the area because of inflammation. In conditions of long-term RA, joint degeneration can occur causing mobility to be very painful and restricted. Treatment: Aspirin used to be used to treat RA but because of its GI toxicity. The use of aspirin as first line of therapy has been superceded by other NSAIDs. There are a large number of NSAIDs that have been invented since aspirin, but have similarities in toxicities e.g. Ibuprofen, naproxen meloxicam, etodolac selective COX-2 inhibitors have been invented to control inflammation. These drugs were designed to combat the gastrointestinal risk of NSAIDS, but there are concerns of increases in cardiovascular risk. II. Cancer (11) Can be defined as an abnormal growth of cells as when a group ofcellsdisplayuncontrolled division,invasion, and sometimesmetastasis. Cells become cancer cells because of its damaging effect to the DNA of the cell. A normal cell will try to repair damaged DNA but in a cancer cell it replicates with the damaged DNA. The cancer cell continues making new cells that the body does not require. The most common cause of cancer pain is infiltration of the tumour into bone. Bone metastases occur as a consequence of different types of cancer. Another mechanism of pain apart from bone metastasis is the secretion of Prostaglandins by carcinomas. For this reason, NSAIDs should be included in any regimen to control pain associated with bone metastasis. Because NSAIDs do not activate opioid receptors, they can provide additional pain relief when combined with an opioid analgesic. Thus, combining an NSAID with an opioid analgesic may provide adequate pain control with a clinically significant reduction in opioid dose. This opioid-sparing effect of NSAID therapy allows the clinician to diminish the side effects associated with opioid therapy without sacrificing pain control. Coxibs: Another Option for Cancer Pain Management(11) The recent introduction of the coxibs, on their use in cancer patients is still being studied. Oncologists are replacing NSAIDs, with the use of coxib, because of the improved safety profile compared to traditional agents. Surgical oncologists are exploring the use of coxibs both preoperatively and during the post-operative period to reduce opioid usage in order to speed the recovery process 5.2 Anti-pyretic (Nadine) 5.3 Anti-inflammatory (Christina) To date there are over 100 inflammatory diseases- each of which causes the degeneration of connective tissue in one or more parts of the body. These include: Rheumatoid Arthritis Osteoarthritis Atherosclerosis Irritable Bowel Disease Alzheimers and many more. Inflammation is characterised by dolor, rubor, calor and tubor, its one of the bodys ways of responding to harmful stimuli, pathogens, injury or disease. These usually initiate an acute or chronic inflammatory response. Arthritis is a general term used to characterise inflammation in the joints. Rheumatoid arthritis describes arthritis that occurs on both sides of the body i.e symmetrical. These usually occur in the wrists, hands and knees. It is not known what causes this disease many theories have been put forward but it happens when the immune system begins to attack the joints. A number of anti-inflammatory drugs are available worldwide and are widely used to relieve pain, swelling and inflammation associated with soft tissue inflammation. A number of these drugs act via the inhibition of COX. When you experience pain and inflammation from arthritis, an increase in microvascular permeability occurs selectively in post-capillary venules. The endothelial cells undergo conformational change leading to vascular leakage through gaps between the adjacent endothelial cells. At the site of injury phagocytes are attracted and move into the affected tissue along with plasma. The plasma causes the associated swelling observed in inflammation and the phagocytes engulf dead cells and bacteria. Prostanoic acids are

Progressive Era: The Era of Immigration, Race, and Women’s Rights Essay

Introduction: The Progressive era was a period of reform in American history that spanned roughly from the 1890s to the 1920s. Prohibitions, segregation, women's suffrage and immigration arose during this time, like many of the social reforms that shape the way we live and work today. The progressive era in the United States one of the most important times in history with brought permanent changes to the American ways of living. All of these and other factor were vital for the creation of a new American society. Be Gender roles: At the beginning of the 20th century the United States starts to leave behind the old ideas of the 19th century concerning the separate, and indeed distinct natures of men and women, which were more, standardized at the pick of the industrialization which defined merchandize labor as the â€Å"job of men,† and the domestic duties as the natural domain of woman. At this time, the relationships with men and women and of both in society stated to generate a big change thanks to the rapid change that industrialization was creating in society, which provokes a rebirth a new believe an practice of the traditional render roles. In the early 20’s women felt that they were lacking participation in their own communities, which alienated them from providing any type of influence in their own society. For this lack in participation women felt that they needed to take action. Voting was one of the first symbolic movements that women saw as a passage to gain all of the rights that they were denied. During this part the gran majority of men did not think that it was a good idea to support women for various reasons. One of the first reasons was that women were larger number of citizen at the time. Also men thought that t... ...emigration. Garvey wanted African Americans to unify and create a central government centered in homeland Africa where they were supposed to build â€Å"a great industrial and commercial commonwealth.† He wanted â€Å"every negro to make the dream of possibility.† His idea was to buy steamships to take people and goods to Africa where they were going to create a new history were I didn’t start with the slaves. Garvey is still significant till this day big figures like Martin Luther King and Malcon X were influence by his ideal. Conclusion: To conclude, the progressive Era was a time where these three main themes generated in a society that was hungry for progression. It is very important to remember that all of these changes in the late 19th century and the early 20th century were not secluded from each other; instead these developments were all interlined with each other.